Partition of India Notes for UPSC: History, Theory, Impact & Legacy

The Partition of India in 1947 was when British India got divided into two separate countries: the Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. This division led to the creation of two separate nations. Nowadays, the Dominion of India is known as the Republic of India, and the Dominion of Pakistan is called the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. 

Partition of India is one of the most important topics for the UPSC IAS Examination. It covers a significant part of the Modern History subject in the General Studies Paper-1 syllabus.

In this article, we are going to discuss the historical background of the Partition of India. These events led to the partition, whether these were August offer, the Elections of 1946, Direct Action Day, and much more, regions affected by Partition and the Legacy of Partition of India.

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The Partition of India in 1947 has a major place in the history of South Asia. In this instance, British India would be splitting up into two independent states, India and Pakistan, creating a divide in the real sense between the two countries because it would act upon religious lines, rejecting such ideas by declaring India- Hindu country, and coming into existence Pakistan- as a separate domain in the world for Muslims. The partition was a response to growing religious tensions and demands for separate nations.

The process was marked by violence and mass migrations as millions of people moved between the two new nations. The partition led to one of the largest and most tragic human migrations in history, accompanied by communal riots and interreligious conflict. The partition's legacy continues to impact the region, with ongoing tensions between India and Pakistan, particularly over the disputed region of Kashmir.

History of Partition of India

When the Partition of Bengal took place on a religious basis, it can be claimed that the seeds for the Partition of India were planted. Lord Curzon, the Viceroy, was forced to change his mind after widespread outrage and protests.

At the Congress Session in Lucknow in 1916, the Indian National Congress and the Muslim League engaged in unprecedented cooperation under the Lucknow Pact.

It was triggered by the Muslim League's concerns that the British government's "religious neutrality" was fake. In order to achieve greater self-government, the Muslim League joined Congress. In exchange, Congress agreed to separate electorates for Muslims in both the provincial legislatures and the Imperial Legislative Council. The Lucknow Pact was eventually signed in 1916, though the full ramifications of the accord emerged during the subsequent years.

A small group of Muslim elites from the states of Uttar Pradesh and Bihar was thought to benefit more from the agreement than the Muslim majorities in Punjab and Bengal. Despite this obvious truth, the agreement was hailed as a significant turning point in the Indian Independence Movement. 

Read the article on the List of Indian National Congress Sessions & their Presidents!

The "Mountbatten Plan," as it has come to be known, was used to split British India between the two new dominions. On June 3, 1947, Mountbatten announced it at a press conference along with the date of independence, August 15, 1947, and the Partition of India.

Provisions of the Mountbatten Plan

• In the legislative assemblies of Bengal and Punjab, Sikhs, Hindus, and Muslims would gather and vote in favour of partition. These provinces would be partitioned if a simple majority of either group desired it.
• Sind and Balochistan were allowed to choose whatever dominion they wished to be a part of, on their own.
• A referendum was to be held to determine the future of the Sylhet district of Assam and the Northwest Frontier Province.
• Bengal's independent status was disregarded.
• To determine the frontiers, a boundary commission was established. On June 2, the Indian authorities approved the proposal. The future of the princely states was discussed.
• On June 3, Mountbatten gave them advice that joining one of the two dominions would be wiser, while remaining independent would be useless. Thus, the demands for a separate state made by the Muslim League were granted.
• Divide the country while preserving as much of its cohesiveness as feasible was Mountbatten's plan.
• The dominions of Pakistan and India were established on August 14 and 15, respectively, with the passage of the Indian Independence Act of 1947.

Read the article on the Lahore Resolution!

The British "Divide and Rule policy" was a major cause of partition of India, and on the basis of this policy, many events took place. Partition of Bengal in 1905, Separate electoral to Muslims in 1909, Lucknow Pact in 1916, the introduction of the two-nation theory in 1924, Provincial elections in 1937, August Offer 1940, Quit India Resolution, the election of 1946, Cabinet Mission, and finally, Mountbatten Plan were the major events that led to the Partition of India.

August Offer and Churchill's Proposal During 1940–1942

The "August Offer" supported that a future constitution will take minorities' perspectives into account in order to satisfy Muslim concerns over Hindu dominance. The offer was turned down in September by the Muslim League and Congress, respectively, and Congress began a campaign of civil disobedience once more.

When the Japanese began rapidly advancing along the Malayan Peninsula in 1942, Winston Churchill, the British Prime Minister, sent a message offering India dominion status at the end of the war in exchange for the Congress's assistance in the war effort. The Congress, which considered itself to be the voice of all Indians of all faiths, likewise opposed the plans.

Quit India Resolution of 1942

Congress passed the Quit India Resolution in August 1942, calling for significant constitutional changes that the British perceived as the biggest challenge to their authority. The anxious British detained the Congress leaders immediately, while the Muslim League was free for the following three years to propagate its message. The Muslim League's membership increased throughout the war, and with its desire for Pakistan, the Muslim League clashed with both the British and the Congress.

Election of 1946

In the 1946 elections, Congress won 91 per cent of the non-Muslim vote and took control of eight provinces.The Congress was now seen as the rightful successor to the British government by the majority of Hindus, and the Muslim League obtained the majority of Muslim votes. The Muslim League was finally able to match up to the notion that it and Jinnah alone represented India's Muslims after recovering from its performance in the 1937 elections.

Cabinet Mission of July 1946

Britain created the Cabinet Mission Plan as India's two major parties were unable to come to an agreement. With this mission, Britain attempted to fulfil Jinnah’s demand for a Pakistan through “groupings” while also maintaining the undivided India that they and Congress wished.

A federal system made up of three groups of provinces was contained in the Cabinet mission framework. The majority-Muslim provinces would make up two of these divisions, and the majority Hindu territories would make up the third grouping. The provinces would have full autonomy, but the centre would continue to be in charge of communications, foreign policy, and defence. The Muslim League approved the recommendations, whereas the Congress leaders, especially Nehru, thought it would leave the Center weak even if the unity of India had been preserved. Finally, the Cabinet mission proposal was rejected.

Direct Action Day of August 1946

Jinnah declared August 16, 1946, Direct Action Day with the stated demand for a Muslim nation in British India after the Cabinet Mission failed. The celebration of Direct Action Day was directly linked to the outbreak of the cycle of violence. It would later be known as the "Great Calcutta Killing of August 1946" by Muslim returning celebrants who attacked Hindus in Calcutta that very evening. The following day, Hindus retaliated, and the rioting lasted for three days, during which time both Hindus and Muslims killed an estimated 4,000 deaths (according to official sources).

The Calcutta killings were the first to exhibit signs of "ethnic cleansing," even though there had previously been incidents of religious violence in India between Hindus and Muslims. The communal unrest spread to Bihar, where Hindus attacked Muslims, and Noakhali in Benga, where Muslims targeted Hindus.

Plan for Partition During 1946-1947

In order to avoid partition and maintain a United India, Lord Louis Mountbatten was appointed as India's final Viceroy by British Prime Minister Attlee. He was given the responsibility of overseeing British India’s independence by 30 June 1948. Despite his original desire to keep the centre together, the tight communal atmosphere led him to believe that separation was required for a more rapid transfer of power.

One of the first Congressmen to support the partition of India as a solution to the growing Muslim separatist movement was Vallabhbhai Patel. He had been horrified by Jinnah's Direct Action campaign, which had sparked communal bloodshed throughout India. According to Patel, the continued existence of a weak and divided central government would encourage the independence of more than 600 princely kingdoms, further dividing India. He received criticism for his perceived eagerness for the partition from Gandhi, Nehru, secular Muslims, and socialists.

Proposal of the Indian Independence Act

Sardar Patel voiced his agreement and urged J. Nehru and other Congress leaders to accept the plan when Lord Mountbatten formally suggested it on June 3, 1947. He was aware of Gandhi's intense distress over the idea of partition and held private sessions with Gandhi. There, he oversaw the split of public property and chose the Indian Council of Ministers alongside Nehru. But neither he nor any other Indian leader had imagined the level of bloodshed and demographic shift that would accompany partition.

British sovereignty over India was to end in June 1948, according to a decision made by the Labour government in Britain. The new Viceroy, Louis Mountbatten, advanced the deadline, giving fewer than six months to come up with a mutually acceptable plan for independence and partition of India since the British army was unprepared for the possibility of greater bloodshed.

Read the Full Article on India After Independence here!

Radcliffe Line 

The Radcliffe Line is a significant border that divides India and Pakistan. It was drawn by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, a British lawyer, in 1947 during the process of partitioning British India into two separate countries – India and Pakistan.

During that time, when India gained independence from British rule, it was decided that there would be a separate country for Muslims, which later became Pakistan. The Radcliffe Line was drawn to determine the boundary between the two newly created nations based on religious demographics.

Sir Cyril Radcliffe had the challenging task of drawing the border, even though he had never been to India before. He was given just five weeks to complete this complicated task. The line he drew aimed to separate regions with predominantly Muslim populations from those with mainly Hindu and Sikh populations.

The Radcliffe Line caused massive population movements as people tried to move to the country where their religion was the majority. This migration resulted in a tragic and chaotic period with widespread violence and loss of lives. The border was not without controversies and disputes. There were disagreements and conflicts between India and Pakistan over various regions that lay near the Radcliffe Line. Some of these disputes, like the ones over Kashmir and Sir Creek, persist today.

Independence of India in 1947

Muhammad Ali Jinnah was sworn in as Pakistan's first Governor-General on August 14, 1947, in Karachi. On the following day, August 15, 1947, India, now the Dominion of India, attained independence. The ceremonial celebrations took hold in New Delhi, and Viceroy Mountbatten continued to serve as the nation's first Governor-General. Gandhi stayed in Bengal to assist the new subcontinental refugees after the partition of India.

Read the article on the India-Pakistan Relations!

Some of the regions that were majorly affected by the Partition of India were:

Punjab

The former British province of Punjab was divided during the partition of British India. The majority Hindu and Sikh eastern region became India's East Punjab state, while the predominantly Muslim western region became Pakistan's Punjab province. Many people were uprooted due to the partition, leading to inter-communal violence. Some have described the violence in Punjab as a vengeful genocide.

Bengal

Bengal province was at first split into West Bengal (in India) and East Bengal (in Pakistan). Subsequently, East Bengal became part of East Pakistan and won independence as Bangladesh after the war of liberation in Bangladesh in 1971. Although having a greater number of Muslims, areas such as Murshidabad and Malda on the right bank of the Ganges were allocated to India. Chittagong Hill Tracts and Khulna District were handed over to Pakistan.

Sindh

Sindh's affluent upper and middle class, mostly Hindu at the time of partition, lived there. Urban areas like Hyderabad, Karachi, Shikarpur, and Sukkur had a significant Hindu population. Few Hindus migrated initially, but the situation started changing in late 1947 and early 1948.

Chittagong Hill Tracts

The sparsely populated Chittagong Hill Tracts, with a 98.5 per cent Buddhist population in 1947, were granted to Pakistan. It provided the Muslim-dominated Chittagong with a hinterland as it was situated on Bengal's eastern border.

Read the article on Communal Politics In India!

The Partition of India in 1947 had a huge impact on Indian society and culture. Here are the key effects:

• Mass Migration: Millions of people were made to leave homes and migrate to India or Pakistan based on their religion. The fate brought Hindus and Sikhs to India; while Pakistan brought Muslims.
• Communal Violence: The partition proved to be a cause for the unleashing of much widespread brutal violence between the Hindus, Muslims, and Sikhs. This claimed the lives of many people, and a series of fiery riots and strikes occurred in the country.
• Loss of Houses and Properties: Hundreds of people left their countries only to discover that they had lost houses, farms, and property somewhere along the way. Families have torn asunder; some now sit in refugee camps.
• Cultural Disruption: The communities that lived in close proximity for centuries were suddenly living outside one another. This disrupted cultural ties, cultural traditions, and lifestyles that were common and shared.
• Identity Crisis: New national identities were thrust on people, forcing them to adjust into being part of a new country with different languages, customs, and values.
• Economic Consequence: The partition affected trade, industries, and agriculture, all pointing towards economic instability. In migration, people lost livelihoods and resources.
• Permanent Tensions: The partition established built-in tensions between India and Pakistan, which eventually turned into conflicts that continue to create problems in their relations.

Read the article on India's Relations with Neighbouring Countries!

In the Indian subcontinent, there is still a lot of anger and conflict because of the partition, which was a very controversial decision. When Lord Mountbatten became Viceroy, a significant civil conflict was looming.

• Historians say that the hurried departure of the British led to many atrocities during the partition, as they wanted to avoid a violent situation. India and Pakistan were responsible for maintaining law and order after they gained independence due to the partition.
• The two countries could not initiate any resettlement operations of significance, although both sides attempted to protect minorities. The riots and massacres made a hazardous journey to safety for countless people, thus becoming one of the largest migrations in history.
• Some people in England maintain that the partition meant the end for the British Empire as a world power; the famous quotation illustrating Curzon's views was that "the loss of India would imply that Britain descends right away to a third rate power."

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